Extensive genetic diversity in Plasmodium vivax from Sudan and its genetic relationships with other geographical isolates.

Plasmodium vivax, traditionally overlooked has experienced a notable increase in cases in East Africa. This study investigated the geographical origin and genetic diversity of P. vivax in Sudan using 14 microsatellite markers. A total of 113 clinical P. vivax samples were collected from two different ecogeographical zones, New Halfa and Khartoum, in Sudan. Additionally, 841 geographical samples from the database were incorporated for a global genetic analysis to discern genetic relationships among P. vivax isolates on regional and worldwide scales. On the regional scale, our findings revealed 91 unique and 8 shared haplotypes among the Sudan samples, showcasing a remarkable genetic diversity compared to other geographical isolates and supporting the hypothesis that P. vivax originated from Africa. On a global scale, distinct genetic clustering of P. vivax isolates from Africa, South America, and Asia (including Papua New Guinea and Solomon Island) was observed, with limited admixture among the three clusters. Principal component analysis emphasized the substantial contribution of African isolates to the observed global genetic variation. The Sudanese populations displayed extensive genetic diversity, marked by significant multi-locus linkage disequilibrium, suggesting an ancestral source of P. vivax variation globally and frequent recombination among the isolates. Notably, the East African P. vivax exhibited similarity with some Asian isolates, indicating potential recent introductions. Overall, our results underscore the effectiveness of utilizing microsatellite markers for implementing robust control measures, given their ability to capture extensive genetic diversity and linkage disequilibrium patterns.