Enhancing slow sand filtration for safe drinking water production: interdisciplinary insights into Schmutzdecke characteristics and filtration performance in mini-scale filters.

The demand for safe drinking water is constantly challenged by increasing biohazards. One widely used solution is implementing indoor-operated slow sand filtration (SSF) as one of the final barriers in water production. SSF has gained popularity due to its low energy consumption and efficient removal of biohazards, especially microorganisms, without using chemicals. SSF involves both physical-chemical and biological removal, particularly in the "Schmutzdecke", which is a biofilm-like layer on the sand bed surface. To achieve the optimal performance of SSF, a systematic understanding of the influence of SSF operating parameters on the Schmutzdecke development and filter filtration performance is required. Our study focused on three operational parameters, i.e., sand material, sand size, and the addition of an inoculum (suspension of matured Schmutzdecke), on the mini-scale filters. The effects of these parameters on the Schmutzdecke development and SSF removal performance were studied by biochemical analyses and 16S amplicon sequencing, together with spiking experiments with Escherichia coli (E. coli) in the mini-scale filters. Our results indicate that the mini-scale filters successfully developed Schmutzdeckes and generated bacterial breakthrough curves efficiently. The sand size and material were found to have an impact on Schmutzdecke's development. The addition of inoculum to new filters did not induce significant changes in the microbial community composition of the Schmutzdecke, but we observed positive effects of faster Schmutzdecke development and better removal performance in some inoculated filters. Our study highlights the value of mini-scale filters for SSF studies, which provide insights into Schmutzdecke microbial ecology and bacterial removal with significantly reduced requirements of materials and effort as compared to larger-scale filters. We found that operational parameters have a greater impact on the Schmutzdecke biochemical characteristics and removal performances than on the microbial community composition. This suggests that Schmutzdecke characteristics may provide more reliable predictors of SSF removal performance, which could help to improve safe drinking water production.