The nexus between Leishmania & HIV: Debilitating host immunity and Hastening Comorbid disease burden.

The scintillating association between Leishmania and HIV has contributed exceptionally towards expansion of Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). The co-infection poses a grievous threat to elimination of VL and containment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). When coinfected, Leishmania and HIV complement each other's proliferation and survival by inducing immunesenescence, T cell fatigue and exhaustion. Antigen presentation is lost, co-stimulatory molecules are diminished whereas co-inhibitory molecules such as CTLA-4, TIGIT, LAG-3 etc. are upregulated to ensure a Th2-baised immune environment. As a consequence, Leishmania-HIV coinfection causes poor outcomes, inflates the spread of Leishmania parasites, enhances the severity of side-effects to drugs, as well as escalate the probability of treatment failure and mortality. What makes control extremely strenuous is that there are frequent episodes of VL relapse with no prognostic markers, no standard immunophenotype(s) and appearance of atypical clinical symptoms. Thus, a standard therapeutic regimen has been difficult to develop and treatment is majorly dependent upon a combination of liposomal Amphotericin B and Miltefosine, a therapy that is expensive and capable of causing drastic side-effects in recipients. As World Health Organization is committed to eliminate both VL and HIV in due course of future, the existing therapeutic interventions require advancements to grapple and overcome this hazardous co-infection. In this context, an overview of HIV-VL co-infection, immunopathology of HIV and Leishmania co-inhabitance, available therapeutic options and their limitations in the treatment of co-infection are discussed in-depth.