Bone Tissue Engineering with Adipose-Derived Stem Cells in Polycaprolactone/Graphene Oxide/Dexamethasone 3D-Printed Scaffolds.

We fabricated three-dimensional (3D)-printed polycaprolactone (PCL) and PCL/graphene oxide (GO) (PGO) scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. An anti-inflammatory and pro-osteogenesis drug dexamethasone (DEX) was adsorbed onto GO and a 3D-printed PGO/DEX (PGOD) scaffold successfully improved drug delivery with a sustained release of DEX from the scaffold up to 1 month. The physicochemical properties of the PCL, PGO, and PGOD scaffolds were characterized by various analytical techniques. The biological response of these scaffolds was studied for adherence, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of seeded rabbit adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) from DNA assays, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) production, calcium quantification, osteogenic gene expression, and immunofluorescence staining of osteogenic marker proteins. The PGOD scaffold was demonstrated to be the best scaffold for maintaining cell viability, cell proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of ASCs in vitro. In vivo biocompatibility of PGOD was confirmed from subcutaneous implantation in nude mice where ASC-seeded PGOD can form ectopic bones, demonstrated by microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) analysis and immunofluorescence staining. Furthermore, implantation of PGOD/ASCs constructs into critical-sized cranial bone defects in rabbits form tissue-engineered bones at the defect site, observed using micro-CT and histological analysis.