Movement of the A-strain maize streak virus in and out of Madagascar.

The maize streak virus belongs in the genus Mastrevirus, in the family Geminiviridae. The A-strain of the virus (MSV-A) is recognised as the principal causative agent of the most severe manifestation of maize streak disease (MSD). This disease continues to be a persistent limitation on maize output across sub-Saharan Africa and the nearby Indian Ocean islands. Irrespective of the causes behind the spread of MSV-A, we can determine the paths and speeds with which MSV-A spreads by analysing MSV genome sequence data along with information on when and where samples were taken. This information is valuable for identifying the geographical origins of viral strains that cause sporadic MSD epidemics in specific places and the geographical regions where viruses remain in reservoirs and contribute to prolonged epidemics during outbreaks. Our aim is to utilise these analyses to estimate the timing and origin of the MSV-A that arrived on the island of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. Specifically, we employ model-based phylogeographic analyses on 524 complete MSV-A genome sequences, which consist of 56 newly obtained genomes from infected maize plants collected in Madagascar. These studies allow us to reconstruct the most likely paths of MSV-A to Madagascar. We found strong evidence for the existence of at least four separate movements of MSV-A variants from East and southern Africa to Madagascar. These movements took place between roughly 1979 (with a 95% highest probability density interval [HPD] ranging from 1976 to 1982) and 2003 (with a 95% HPD ranging from 2002 to 2003). While we inferred that MSV-A variants are spreading at an average rate of 38.9 km/year (with a 95% highest posterior density interval of 34.0-44.4) across their geographical range. Since their arrival in Madagascar, MSV-A variants have been migrating at an average rate of 47.6 km/year (with a 95% highest posterior density interval of 36.05-61.70). Human influences are likely significant contributors to both sporadic long-range movements of MSV-A between mainland Africa and Madagascar, as well as shorter to medium range movements within the island.