Biocompatible triboelectric energy generators (BT-TENGs) for energy harvesting and healthcare applications.

Electronic waste (e-waste) has become a significant environmental and societal challenge, necessitating the development of sustainable alternatives. Biocompatible and biodegradable electronic devices offer a promising solution to mitigate e-waste and provide viable alternatives for various applications, including triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in biocompatible, biodegradable, and implantable TENGs, emphasizing their potential as energy scavengers for healthcare devices. The review delves into the fabrication processes of self-powered TENGs using natural biopolymers, highlighting their biodegradability and compatibility with biological tissues. It further explores the biomedical applications of ultrasound-based TENGs, including their roles in wound healing and energy generation. Notably, the review presents the novel application of TENGs for vagus nerve stimulation, demonstrating their potential in neurotherapeutic interventions. Key findings include the identification of optimal biopolymer materials for TENG fabrication, the effectiveness of TENGs in energy harvesting from physiological movements, and the potential of these devices in regenerative medicine. Finally, the review discusses the challenges in scaling up the production of implantable TENGs from biomaterials, addressing issues such as mechanical stability, long-term biocompatibility, and integration with existing medical devices, outlining future research opportunities to enhance their performance and broaden their applications in the biomedical field.