Operando electron spin probes for the study of battery processes.

Operando electron spin probes, namely magnetometry and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), provide real-time insights into the electrochemical processes occurring in battery materials and devices. In this work, we describe the design criteria and outline the development of operando magnetometry and EPR electrochemical cells. Notably, we show that a clamping mechanism, or springs, are needed to achieve sufficient compression of the battery stack and an electrochemical performance on par with that of a standard Swagelok-type cell. The tandem use of operando EPR and magnetometry allows us to identify five distinct and reversible redox processes taking place on charge and discharge of the intercalation-type LiNiMnO Li-ion cathode. While redox processes in conversion-type electrodes are notoriously difficult to investigate using standard characterization methods (e.g. X-ray based) and/or post mortem analysis, due to the formation of poorly crystalline and metastable reaction intermediates and products during cycling, we show that operando magnetometry provides unique insight into the kinetics and reversibility of Fe nanoparticle formation in the NaFeF electrode for Na-based batteries. Step increases in the cell magnetization upon extended cycling indicate the build-up of Fe nanoparticles in the system, hinting at only partially reversible charge-discharge processes. The broad applicability of the tools developed herein to a range of electrode chemistries and structures, from intercalation to conversion electrodes, and from crystalline to amorphous systems, makes them particularly promising for the development of electrochemical energy storage technologies and beyond.