Simulation of rapid sand filters to understand and design sequential iron and manganese removal using reactive transport modelling.

Iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and ammonium (NH) oxidation processes were studied in three single media and three dual media full-scale rapid sand filters (RSFs) using reactive transport modelling (RTM) in PHREEQC and parameter estimation using PEST. Here, we present the insights gained into the spatial distribution of Fe and Mn mineral coatings in RSFs and its influence on the oxidation sequence and rates. Fe and Mn oxidation predominantly occurred simultaneously in the RSFs, contrary to the expected sequential oxidation based on Gibbs free energy calculations. During backwashing, RSF grains become fully mixed, which initiates heterogeneous Mn oxidation on Mn-coated grains that end up in the top layer. The resulting grains have a mixed Fe/Mn mineral coating, which is limiting heterogeneous Mn oxidation due to the limited Mn mineral surface available. Mixed coatings did not seem to affect Fe oxidation rates, instead oxidation rates were increasing at lower pH. We found that RSFs can be designed to spatially separate Fe and Mn oxidation, which results in optimal conditions for Mn oxidation. The RSF needs to consist of two layers with varying density to inhibit mixing and complete Fe oxidation should occur in the top layer. The developed RTM can be used to estimate the depth at which Fe oxidation is complete, and thus the ideal intersection depth of the two layers. A novel perspective is provided on how mineral coating distribution in single and dual media filters influence removal rates and the sequence of oxidation, which contributes to the design of more efficient groundwater filters.