Past and current climate as a driver in shaping the distribution of the Longitarsus candidulus species group (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).

Longitarsus candidulus (Foudras) is a thermophilic flea beetle species widely distributed in the Mediterranean Basin and associated with Daphne gnidium L. and Thymelaea hirsuta (L.). Longitarsus laureolae Biondi and Longitarsus leonardii Doguet, phylogenetically closely related to L. candidulus, show together a peculiar and rare disjunct distribution along the central-southern Apennines and the Cantabrian-Pyrenean mountain system, respectively. Both are associated with Daphne laureola L. in mesophilic habitats. We used "ecological niche modeling" to infer the Pleistocene dynamics in the distribution of the three flea beetle species and their host plants. We interpreted their current distributions, paying particular attention to the presumed time of species divergence as inferred from recent studies. The differentiation of L. laureolae and L. leonardii from L. candidulus likely represents a response to the marked climatic changes during the Late Pliocene. Such a split was likely associated with a trophic niche shift of the laureolae/leonardii ancestor towards the typically mesophilic host plant D. laureola. The subsequent split between L. laureolae and L. leonardii, possibly due at first to the niche competition, was then boosted by an allopatric divergence during the Middle Pleistocene, likely caused by a large area of low environmental suitability for both species, mainly located between the northern Apennines and the south-western Alps.