Adsorption behavior of cationic dyes on starch nanocrystals: Kinetic, isotherm, and thermodynamic insights from single to multi-component systems.

The adsorptive potential of starch nanocrystals (SNCs) was evaluated for the elimination of methylene blue (MB), crystal violet (CV), and malachite green (MG) from aqueous media in single, binary, and ternary dye systems using batch mode experiments. SNCs were extracted using mild acid hydrolysis to remove the amorphous parts of native granular starch, and they were characterized using different physicochemical methods, such as FESEM, XRD, FTIR, BET, TGA, and pH. The results revealed that the optimal pH for dye removal in both single and mixed dye systems was found to be 9.0. The equilibrium time increased from 5 to 20 min when the system was changed from single to binary, and then further increased to 30 min when the system was changed to ternary. The equilibrium data for single-dye systems exhibited a good fit with the Langmuir isotherm model (R > 0.98, SEE <3.52 mg g), whereas for binary and ternary dye mixtures, the extended Langmuir model provided an accurate representation of the experimental data (R2 > 0.99, SEE <1.33 mg g). Among the single, binary, and ternary systems, the highest adsorption capacities were observed for MB, MB in the (MB + MG) binary system, and MB in the (MB + CV + MG) ternary system. The respective adsorption capacities were recorded as 79.55 mg g, 61.91 mg g, and 43.59 mg g. The adsorption of dyes onto the SNCs was inherently spontaneous and endothermic, and adhered to the pseudo-second-order kinetic model in single dye systems as well as mixed dye systems. It can be concluded that the SNCs are capable of being utilized for five consecutive cycles in the adsorption-desorption process for single dye systems and three consecutive cycles for mixed dye systems. This suggests that the SNCs have potential as a sustainable and efficient option for dye removal in mixture systems.