Bou Malhab F, Hosri J, Zaytoun G, Hadi U
Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Saint Joseph Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon.
Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, American University of Beirut Medical Center, 11-0236, Riad El Solh 1107 2020, Beirut, Lebanon.
Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis. 2025 Jul;142(4):191-200. doi: 10.1016/j.anorl.2024.09.008. Epub 2024 Oct 11.
To introduce the trigeminal cervical complex (TCC) as a comprehensive framework for understanding the anatomical and functional scope of the afferences and efferences of the trigeminal nerve and explaining common otolaryngologic symptoms, including head and neck myofascial pain syndrome. Additionally, it explores how the bidirectional transmission of neurotransmitters contributes to the sensitization of the TCC and motor nuclei.
The study was conducted as a narrative review. The authors performed a comprehensive search of multiple databases, including Medline/OVID, Embase, Scopus, and PubMed, covering publications from inception until August 2023. Both keywords and medical subject headings related to the TCC were utilized in the search. Information from 66 studies was extracted based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria.
This review discusses the multiple afferent connections from cranial nerves, specifically VII, IX, X, and XI, to the TCC, and their respective efferent pathways. These connections may explain various clinical manifestations in the head and neck that cannot be attributed to other medical conditions. Additionally, the review highlights the dual sensory and motor nature of cranial nerves, emphasizing the bidirectional transmission of neurotransmitters in head and neck areas, which leads to the sensitization of both the TCC and motor nuclei innervating the cervicofacial muscles.
The authors hypothesize that the central and peripheral sensitization and the intricate connections of the TCC can elucidate the pathophysiology of conditions such as otalgia, tinnitus, hearing loss, vertigo, headache, cervicogenic dizziness, bruxism, and other symptoms affecting the head and neck.
