Mechanistic insight on nanomaterial-induced reactive oxygen species formation.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are closely related to cell death, proliferation and inflammation. However, excessive ROS levels may exceed the cellular oxidative capacity and cause irreversible damage. Organisms are often inadvertently exposed to nanomaterials (NMs). Therefore, elucidating the specific routes of ROS generation induced by NMs is crucial for comprehending the toxicity mechanisms of NMs and regulating their potential applications. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the toxicity mechanisms and applications of NMs from three perspectives: (1) Organelle perspective. Investigating the impact of NM-mediated ROS on mitochondria, unraveling mechanisms at the organelle level. (2) NMs' perspective. Exploring the broad applications and biosafety considerations of Nanozymes, a unique class of NMs. (3) Cellular system. Examining the toxic effects and mechanisms of NMs in cells at a holistic cellular level. Expanding on these perspectives, the paper scrutinizes the regulation of Fenton reactions by NMs in organisms. Furthermore, it introduces diseases resulting from NM-mediated ROS at the organism level. This comprehensive review aims to provide valuable insights for studying NM-mediated mechanisms at both cellular and organism levels, offering considerations for the safe design of nanomaterials.