Full-waveform inversion reveals diverse origins of lower mantle positive wave speed anomalies.

Determining Earth's structure is paramount to unravel its interior dynamics. Seismic tomography reveals positive wave speed anomalies throughout the mantle that spatially correlate with the expected locations of subducted slabs. This correlation has been widely applied in plate reconstructions and geodynamic modelling. However, global travel-time tomography typically incorporates only a limited number of easily identifiable body wave phases and is therefore strongly dependent on the source-receiver geometry. Here, we show how global full-waveform inversion is less sensitive to source-receiver geometry and reveals numerous previously undetected positive wave speed anomalies in the lower mantle. Many of these previously undetected anomalies are situated below major oceans and continental interiors, with no geologic record of subduction, such as beneath the western Pacific Ocean. Moreover, we find no statistically significant correlation positive anomalies as imaged using full-waveform inversion and past subduction. These findings suggest more diverse origins for these anomalies in Earth's lower mantle, unlocking full-waveform inversion as an indispensable tool for mantle exploration.