Genetic and linguistic comparisons reveal complex sex-biased transmission of language features.

The history of people's movements and interactions shapes both genetic and linguistic variation. Genes and languages are transmitted separately and their distributions reflect different aspects of human history, but some demographic processes can cause them to be similarly distributed. In particular, forms of societal organization, including movements in and out of a community, may have shaped the transmission of both genes and languages. If children were more likely to learn their mother's language than their father's when their parents were from populations that spoke different languages or dialects, then language variation might show a closer association with maternally transmitted genetic markers than autosomal ones; this association could be further reinforced if children reside with predominantly maternal kin. We analyze the worldwide relationship between linguistic and genomic variation, leveraging the sex-biased transmission of X chromosomes to assess whether language has tended to be preferentially transmitted along the male or female line. In addition, we measure the effects of postmarital residence with female kin, matrilineal descent, and endogamy on the covariation of mitochondrial DNA and languages, using mtDNA because genomic data were available for very few populations with these ethnographic traits. We find that while there is little evidence for a consistent or widespread sex bias in the transmission of language, such biased transmission may have occurred locally in several parts of the world and might have been influenced by population-level ethnographic characteristics, such as female-based descent or residence patterns. Our results highlight the complex relationships between genes, language, ethnography, and geography.