Toward understanding grapevine responses to climate change: a multi-stress and holistic approach.

Recent research has extensively covered the effects of climate change factors, such as elevated CO2, rising temperatures, and water deficit on grapevine (Vitis spp.) biology. However, assessing the impacts of multiple climate change-related stresses on this crop remains complex due to interactive effects among environmental factors, and the regulatory mechanisms that underlie these. Consequently, there is a substantial discrepancy between the number of studies conducted with a single factor or two factors simultaneously, and those with a more holistic approach. Changes in crop phenology in response to temperature have been a major focus of many studies. We highlight how the impact of rising temperatures will be enhanced during specific developmental periods, such as grape ripening. However, how these shifts may result in deleterious effects on yield and quality deserves further research. Rising temperatures will most certainly continue to represent a substantial threat to viticulture due to its effects on grape phenology, composition, and crop water requirements. Nevertheless, elevated CO2 may offer some relief through increased water use efficiency, as shown in recent studies. Hormones play a major role within the repertoire of regulatory mechanisms that plants possess, with crosstalk between hormones explaining the effects of combined stresses. In fact, growth regulators can fine-tune stress responses depending on the multiple stresses present. This review focuses on the interaction of climate change factors across viticultural areas of the globe, and how multi-stress responses are mediated by abscisic acid and jasmonate, with emphasis on the intricate interconnections of signalling among different plant hormones.