Some like it hot: adaptation to the urban heat island in common dandelion.

The Urban Heat Island Effect (UHIE) is a globally consistent pressure on biological species living in cities. Adaptation to the UHIE may be necessary for urban wild flora to persist in cities, but experimental evidence is scarce. Here, we report evidence of adaptive evolution in a perennial plant species in response to the UHIE. We collected seeds from common dandelion () individuals along an urban-rural gradient in the city of Amsterdam (The Netherlands). In common-environment greenhouse experiments, we assessed the effect of elevated temperatures on plant growth and the effect of vernalization treatments on flowering phenology. We found that urban plants accumulate more biomass at higher temperatures and require shorter vernalization periods, corresponding to milder winters, to induce flowering compared to rural plants. Differentiation was also observed between different intra-urban subhabitats, with park plants displaying a higher vernalization requirement than street plants. Our results show genetic differentiation between urban and rural dandelions in temperature-dependent growth and phenology, consistent with adaptive divergence in response to the UHIE. Adaptation to the UHIE may be a potential explanation for the persistence of dandelions in urban environments.