The Formation of γ-Valerolactone from Renewable Levulinic Acid over Ni-Cu Fly Ash Zeolite Catalysts.

Zeolites with different structures (P1, sodalite, and X) were synthesized from coal fly ash by applying ultrasonically assisted hydrothermal and fusion-hydrothermal synthesis. Bimetallic catalysts, containing 5 wt.% Ni and 2.5 wt.% Cu, supported on the zeolites, were prepared by a post-synthesis incipient wetness impregnation method. The catalysts were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), N physisorption, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Mössbauer and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies (XPS), and H-temperature-programmed reduction (H-TPR) analyses. The XRPD results showed that crystalline Cu and NiCu intermetallic nanoparticles were formed in the reduced catalysts. The presence of the intermetallic phase affected the reducibility of the nickel by shifting it to a lower temperature, as confirmed by the H-TPR curves. Based on the Mössbauer spectroscopic results, it was established that the iron contamination of the coal fly ash zeolites (CFAZs) was distributed in ionic positions of the zeolite lattice and as a finely dispersed iron oxide phase on the external surface of the supports. The formation of the NiFe alloy, not detectable by XRPD, was also evidenced on the impregnated samples. The catalysts were studied in the upgrading of levulinic acid (LA), derived from lignocellulosic biomass, to γ-valerolactone (GVL), in a batch reactor under 30 bar H pressure at 150 and 200 °C, applying water as a solvent. The NiCu/SOD and NiCu/X catalysts showed total LA conversion and a high GVL yield (>75%) at a reaction temperature of 200 °C. It was found that the textural parameters of the catalysts have less influence on the catalytic activity, but rather the stable dispersion of metals during the reaction. The characterization of the spent catalyst found the rearrangement of the support structure. The high LA conversion and GVL yield can be attributed to the weak acidic character of the support and the moderate hydrogenation activity of the Ni-Cu sites with high dispersion.