Comprehensive review of phthalate exposure: Health implications, biomarker detection and regulatory standards.

Phthalates are a wide family of chemicals that are used in many different industrial applications used in many different industrial applications, including the production of plastics, toys, food packaging particularly for kids, and medical equipment. Due to their various chemical and physical properties, phthalates may negatively impact humans, animals, and the environment. Thus the potential for phthalate exposure and harm to humans, animals, and the environment is high because its presence is alarming. Phthalates can be ingested, inhaled, absorbed topically, or via iatrogenic exposure in animals and humans. This article aimed to ascertain the modes of exposure, fate and detection techniques, and harmful effects of phthalates on humans, animals, and the environment. This review also shows that the intake of phthalate above the established daily limit from sources such as food, toys, and air causes serious harm, including impaired immune function, difficulties in pregnancy, loss of reproduction, and damage to the kidneys, lungs, heart, and brain in humans. Children and pregnant women are the most impacted groups and phthalates also negatively affect the environment and wildlife. A few methods to determine phthalate exposure, such as the LC and the HPLC-MS/MS methods, which employ human fluid or dust air as a biomarker, are also addressed here. Consequently, this comprehensive review aims to provide a detailed analysis of the existing evidence regarding explicit links between exposure to phthalates and subsequent health outcomes that may be directly related to this exposure. Additionally, we reviewed the developed and validated analytical methods and supplemented the literature with partial biomonitoring data on their metabolites.