Temporal and spatial variations of urban surface temperature and correlation study of influencing factors.

Urban overheating significantly affects thermal comfort and livability, making it essential to understand the relationship between urban form and land surface temperature (LST). While the horizontal dimensions of urban form have been widely studied, the vertical structures and their impact on LST remain underexplored. This study investigates the influence of three-dimensional urban form characteristics on LST, using ECOSTRESS sensor data and four machine learning models. Six urban morphology variables-building density (BD), mean building height (MH), building volume (BVD), gross floor area (GFA), floor area ratio (FAR), and sky view factor (SVF)-are analyzed across different seasons and times of day. The results reveal that MH, BD, and FAR are season-stable factors, with higher MH correlated with lower LST ((e.g., an observed reduction of approximately 3 °C in spring), while higher BD is associated with higher LST (e.g., an increase of about 3.5 °C in autumn). In contrast, BVD, GFA, and SVF are season-varying factors with variable impacts depending on the time of year. Higher BVD is generally associated with elevated LST, while GFA and SVF are linked to lower LST. These associations reflect absolute changes in LST, measured directly from ECOSTRESS data. These findings offer valuable insights into the complex interactions between urban morphology and LST, helping to inform strategies for urban heat mitigation and sustainable planning.