Plant-microbiome interactions for enhanced crop production under cadmium stress: A review.

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that has detrimental effects on agriculture crops and human health. Both natural and anthropogenic processes release Cd into the environment, elevating its contents in soils. Under Cd stress, strong plant-microbiome interactions are important in improving crop production, but a systematic review is still missing. This review demonstrates the importance of microbiomes and their interactions with plants in mitigating Cd toxicity and promoting crop growth. Endogenous and exogenous microbiomes play a role to enhance plant's ability to respond to Cd stress. Specifically, the rhizosphere microbiome, which includes plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, endosphere microbiome, and phyllosphere microbiome, are involved in Cd accumulation, immobilization, and translocation, and Cd-induced stress management. The mechanisms underlying these plant-microbiome interactions vary depending on the species and varieties of crops, composition and diversity of the microbiome, and level of Cd stress. Among the microbiome-mediated approaches, biosorption, bioprecipitation, and bioaccumulation are promising for Cd remediation in soil. Additionally, the endosphere microbiome, particularly Cd resistant endophytes, reduces Cd toxicity, increases the expression of Cd efflux genes, and enhances crop growth through regulating crops' antioxidant machinery and endogenous hormones. Furthermore, improved agricultural practices modulate the soil and plant microbiomes, thereby reducing Cd stress and increasing crop productivity.