Redox imbalance and hypoxia-inducible factors: a multifaceted crosstalk.

Redox homeostasis, the delicate balance between oxidative and reductive processes, is crucial for cellular function and overall organismal health. At the molecular level, cells need to maintain a fine balance between the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reducing equivalents such as glutathione and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. The perturbation of redox homeostasis due to excessive ROS production leads to oxidative stress that can damage lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Conversely, an overly reduced cellular environment due to overabundant reducing equivalents results in reductive stress, which also interferes with important cellular signaling and physiological processes. Disrupted redox homeostasis is linked to various pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases, inflammatory diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. Cells employ diverse mechanisms to manage redox imbalance. The hypoxia response pathway, mediated by hypoxia-inducible factors and responsible for sensing and defending against low oxygen levels, plays a vital role in maintaining redox homeostasis. In this review, we highlight the complex and multifaceted crosstalk between hypoxia-inducible factors and redox homeostasis and discuss avenues for future research. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that link hypoxia-inducible factors to oxidative and reductive stresses is essential for comprehending several pathological conditions associated with hypoxia and redox imbalance.