CTLA-4-two pathways to anti-tumour immunity?

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapies have revolutionized cancer therapy and improved patient outcomes in a range of cancers. ICIs enhance anti-tumour immunity by targeting the inhibitory checkpoint receptors CTLA-4, PD-1, PD-L1, and LAG-3. Despite their success, efficacy, and tolerance vary between patients, raising new challenges to improve these therapies. These could be addressed by the identification of robust biomarkers to predict patient outcome and a more complete understanding of how ICIs affect and are affected by the tumour microenvironment (TME). Despite being the first ICIs to be introduced, anti-CTLA-4 antibodies have underperformed compared with antibodies that target the PD-1/PDL-1 axis. This is due to the complexity regarding their precise mechanism of action, with two possible routes to efficacy identified. The first is a direct enhancement of effector T-cell responses through simple blockade of CTLA-4-'releasing the brakes', while the second requires prior elimination of regulatory T cells (T) to allow emergence of T-cell-mediated destruction of tumour cells. We examine evidence indicating both mechanisms exist but offer different antagonistic characteristics. Further, we investigate the potential of the soluble isoform of CTLA-4, sCTLA-4, as a confounding factor for current therapies, but also as a therapeutic for delivering antigen-specific anti-tumour immunity.