Quantifying the trade-offs between renewable energy visibility and system costs.

Visual landscape impacts on scenic and populated places are among significant factors affecting local acceptance of large-scale renewable energy projects. Through the combination of large-scale reverse viewshed and techno-economic energy system analyses, we assess their potential impacts for nationwide energy systems. In our case study of Germany, moderate consideration of visual impact by placing renewables out of sight of the most scenic and densely populated areas does not have a significant impact on future energy system costs and design. In contrast, in scenarios assuming high sensitivity to visual impacts, annual energy system costs would increase by up to 38% in 2045. The energy system's resilience would also be compromised due to the increasing reliance on green hydrogen imports and the uncertain mass adoption of rooftop photovoltaics. Our analytical framework facilitates careful planning that considers the visual impact of renewable energy infrastructure, thus enabling socially acceptable deployment while understanding the implications for system costs and transformation pathways.