The Role of the Gut Microbiota in Heart Failure: Pathophysiological Insights and Future Perspectives.

The gut microbiota has emerged as a crucial player in cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure (HF). Recent studies have highlighted the bidirectional interaction between the gut and the heart, often referred to as the gut-heart axis. Dysbiosis, characterized by alterations in microbial composition and function, has been linked to systemic inflammation, metabolic disturbances, and impaired cardiovascular homeostasis. This review explores the mechanisms through which gut microbiota influences HF, including microbial metabolite production, inflammatory pathways, endothelial dysfunction, hormonal modulation, fluid retention, and sodium absorption. The potential therapeutic implications of microbiota modulation through diet, probiotics, and pharmacological interventions are also discussed. Understanding these mechanisms could pave the way for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in the management of HF. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies to establish causality and the development of personalized microbiota-based interventions.