Oral cavity carcinoma detection using BAT algorithm-optimized machine learning models with transfer learning and random sampling.

BACKGROUND

Oral cavity carcinoma remains a major public health concern, where early and accurate detection is vital for improving patient outcomes and survival rates. Current diagnostic systems often face challenges such as limited feature selection capabilities, imbalanced datasets, and computational inefficiencies.

METHODS

This study proposes a novel diagnostic framework TR-ROS-BAT-ML that integrates transfer learning, random sampling, and a BAT algorithm-based optimization strategy with ensemble machine learning classifiers. A dataset comprising 1224 hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained histological images (at 100x and 400x magnifications) of normal oral epithelium and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) was collected from 230 patients using a Leica ICC50 HD microscopy camera. Pre-trained deep learning models (NANSNetLarge, EfficientNetB7, EfficientNetV2L, EfficientNetV2S, EfficientNetV2M) were employed for feature extraction. To address class imbalance, random oversampling techniques were applied. The BAT algorithm, inspired by bat echolocation behavior, was used for feature selection and hyperparameter tuning. Optimized features were classified using ensemble methods, including XGBoost, AdaBoost, Extra Trees (ET), Histogram-Based Gradient Boosting (HBGC), and MultiLayer Perceptron (MLP).

RESULTS

The proposed approach achieved high diagnostic performance across multiple model combinations. The best performance was recorded with the optimized ET model using random oversampling, achieving a recall of 0.992, demonstrating its efficacy in detecting oral lesions. In contrast, the combination of EfficientNetV2S + ROS + MLP yielded the lowest accuracy at 50.8 %. These results confirm the robustness of the TR-ROS-BAT-ML framework in handling imbalanced datasets and optimizing classification performance.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the effectiveness of combining nature-inspired optimization, transfer learning, and ensemble machine learning for enhanced detection of oral cavity carcinoma. The proposed TR-ROS-BAT-ML framework offers a scalable, accurate, and efficient diagnostic tool with potential for real-time implementation. Future research will focus on integrating multi-modal data and further optimization to enhance its clinical applicability and impact in AI-driven healthcare solutions.