Spatiotemporal patterns and environmental determinants of wildlife-vehicle collisions in Banke National Park, Nepal.

Wildlife vehicle collisions (WVCs) represent a significant threat globally to biodiversity conservation, driver safety and economic resources. This study evaluated the magnitude, spatial-temporal patterns, and influencing factors associated with WVCs within Banke National Park (BaNP), Nepal, to inform effective mitigation planning and biodiversity conservation strategies. Data on WVCs and relevant environmental and anthropogenic variables were collected between April 2015 and March 2024 along a 97.3 km road segment traversing BaNP. The methodological approach integrated field surveys, spatial analyses using kernel density estimation, and statistical modelling to pinpoint collision hotspots and elucidate contributing factors. In total, 488 WVC incidents were documented, predominantly involving mammals (87.52%), followed by reptiles (8.58%) and birds (3.88%). Endangered and vulnerable species, including the golden monitor lizard, leopard cat, and four-horned antelope, were among the recorded fatalities. Spatial analysis identified significant WVC hotspots at Muguwa, Obhari, and Khairi, collectively accounting for over 60% of total incidents. Temporal patterns indicated a seasonal peak during autumn (30%), coinciding with increased post-monsoon dispersal and foraging behaviour. Statistical analyses highlighted that road curvature, proximity to water sources, and surrounding land use significantly influenced collision risk. Specifically, higher WVC odds were associated with curved roads and greater distances from settlements, while straighter road segments and higher forest canopy coverage near roads correlated with reduced risk. This study underscores the pressing need for targeted mitigation measures, such as wildlife crossings, speed reduction zones, and enhanced public awareness initiatives, to reduce WVC occurrences and protect vulnerable wildlife in BaNP. The findings contribute to the existing knowledge regarding road ecology and provide crucial insights for informed conservation interventions within protected areas.