TiO Nanorod Array for Betavoltaic Cells: Performance Validation and Enhancement with Electron Beam and Ni Irradiations.

The growing demand for reliable micropower sources in extreme environments has accelerated the development of betavoltaic cells (BV cells) with high energy conversion efficiency and superior radiation resistance. This study demonstrates an advanced BV cell architecture utilizing three-dimensional TiO nanorod arrays (TNRAs) integrated with a NiO hole transport layer (HTL). Monte Carlo simulations were employed to optimize the cell design and determine the fabrication parameters for growing TNRAs on FTO substrates via hydrothermal synthesis. The performance evaluation employed both electron beam (2.36 × 10 e/cm·s) and Ni (3.4 mCi/cm) irradiation methods. The simulation results revealed optimal energy deposition characteristics, with ~96% of β-particle energy effectively absorbed within the 2 μm thick FTO/TNRA/NiO/Au structure. The NiO-incorporated device achieved an energy conversion efficiency of 4.84%, with a short-circuit current of 119.9 nA, an open-circuit voltage of 324.2 mV, and a maximum power output of 24.0 nW, representing a 3.76-fold enhancement over HTL-free devices. Radioactive source testing confirmed stable power generation and linear efficiency scaling, validating electron beam irradiation as an effective accelerated testing methodology for BV cell research.