Models of Endocrine-Disrupting Effects: Human Placental Steroidogenesis.

Endocrine disruption during pregnancy has gained increasing interest as epidemiological studies report associations of exposures and adverse effects on fetal growth, followed by effects on the growing child and ultimately in the adult. When studying endocrine disruption during pregnancy, the placental steroidogenesis is difficult to model, as the human placenta is unique in the pathway of cellular uptake of cholesterol, the high levels of progesterone production and the expression of aromatase. Models to test for endocrine disruption should respect species differences, with preference to human models for human risk assessment. Here, we present existing research of placental steroidogenesis and other placental hormones using human placental models: placental perfusion, placental explants, fragments, microsomes and vesicles, primary cell culture, stem cells, placenta on a chip and choriocarcinoma cell cultures: BeWo, HTR-8/SVneo, Jar, JEG-3 and ACH-3P. We conclude that there is a lack of research focused on placental steroidogenesis and the effects of endocrine-disrupting compounds. Advantages and limitations of existing models are discussed, and future directions suggested.