Biophotonic (nano)structures: from fundamentals to emerging applications.

Biophotonics is a dynamic interdisciplinary field that merges biology, photonics, and optics to explore and manipulate biological systems through light. Its applications are particularly prominent in medical diagnostics, imaging, and therapy. Key uses of biophotonic (nano)structures include enhancing medical imaging and enabling biosensing to detect disease markers. In therapeutic contexts, these nanostructures show significant promise in photothermal and photodynamic therapies, improving imaging contrast and allowing for real-time monitoring of cellular processes. However, the field faces challenges such as fabrication complexities, scalability, biocompatibility, and integration with existing technologies. For instance, limited biocompatibility can lead to adverse immune responses or toxicity, hindering their safe use , while scalability issues restrict the mass production of nanostructures with consistent quality, both of which are critical for clinical translation. Moreover, integrating these materials with existing medical devices or workflows often requires redesigning current platforms, slowing down adoption. Despite these obstacles, the future of biophotonics appears promising, especially with advancements in nanotechnology, including 3D printing and self-assembly, which could streamline production. The potential integration of biophotonic nanostructures with emerging technologies like wearable devices and point-of-care diagnostics could revolutionize healthcare by facilitating continuous health monitoring and rapid disease detection. This review aims to provide a thorough examination of biophotonic nanostructures and their emerging applications in disease diagnosis, imaging, and therapy. Additionally, it will address the challenges and future directions of biophotonic research, enhancing our understanding of how these innovative technologies can tackle critical issues in modern medicine and deepen our knowledge of complex biological systems.