Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Disease.

Despite notable advancements in clinical care, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a leading global cause of mortality. Encompassing a wide range of heart and blood vessel disorders, CVD requires targeted prevention and treatment strategies to mitigate its public health impact. In recent years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as crucial mediators of intercellular communication, influencing key processes such as vascular remodeling, inflammation, and immune responses in CVDs. EVs, including exosomes and microvesicles, carry bioactive molecules such as miRNAs, proteins, and lipids that contribute to disease progression. They are released by various cell types, including platelets, erythrocytes, leukocytes, endothelial cells, and cardiomyocytes, each playing distinct roles in cardiovascular homeostasis and pathology. Given their presence in circulating blood and other body fluids, EVs are increasingly recognized as promising non-invasive biomarkers for CVD diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, EV-based therapeutic strategies, including engineered EVs for targeted drug delivery, are being explored for treating atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and hypertension. However, challenges remain regarding the standardization of EV isolation and characterization techniques, which are critical for their clinical implementation. This review highlights the diverse roles of EVs in CVD pathophysiology, their potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and emerging therapeutic applications, clearing the way for their integration into cardiovascular precision medicine.