Integrating Temporal and Spatial Dimensions of Alpine Adaptation: Camera-Trap Insights on Bharal () in Giant Panda National Park.

Alpine ungulates exemplify climate vulnerability through their spatiotemporal adaptation strategies, yet integrated analyses of these dimensions remain scarce. Here, we investigated how bharal () in Giant Panda National Park adjusts both time-activity budgets and spatial distributions under extreme seasonal conditions. We deployed a network of 50 infrared cameras along altitudinal transects (3300-4500 m) during summer and winter. We extracted the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from satellite imagery for each camera site and calculated the Relative Abundance Index (RAI) to quantify activity intensity and assess its seasonal variation. Our results revealed two key adaptations. (i) Temporal compression: Activity intensity in winter was reduced by 66% compared to summer (RAI: 0.85 ± 0.04 vs. 0.29 ± 0.21;  < 0.01) and exhibited a weaker diurnal-nocturnal contrast ( < 0.05). (ii) Spatial contraction: The bharal's altitudinal range narrowed by 73% from summer (3685-4248 m) to winter (3859-4012 m), accompanied by a significant decrease in NDVI (summer: 0.70 ± 0.14 vs. winter: 0.14 ± 0.06;  < 0.05). These findings reveal a dual-phase adaptation in bharal: expanding activity and range in resource-rich summers and contracting both in winter to conserve energy. By integrating infrared camera data with satellite-derived NDVI, our approach highlights how alpine ungulates respond to seasonal challenges and provides a foundation for predicting climate-driven shifts in high-elevation ecosystems.