Silver-spoon effect in agricultural crop consumers: crop consumption enhances skeletal growth in sika deer.

Owing to agricultural expansion worldwide, agricultural crops can have major effects on the life history traits of wildlife. However, the functional role of crop consumption on the life history traits of long-lived mammals is seldom evaluated quantitatively. Body size is an important life history trait because it is directly related to fitness. In this study, we investigated the functional role of long-term crop consumption on skeletal growth of sika deer (). Crop consumption accelerated skeletal growth of not only the consumer but also the next generation, and its effect differed by sex. In females, the degree of crop consumption produced maximum differences of about 1.4 years in the ages at which 98% asymptotic size was attained. Furthermore, there was a maximum difference of 1.5 times in the skeletal growth rate. On the other hand, crop consumption did not always affect skeletal growth in males. The degree of crop consumption by mothers generated a maximum difference of about 15% in the hind-foot length of their fetus. This study revealed that long-term crop consumption makes a difference in skeletal growth of deer at an individual level, even within the same population. Crop consumption by the mother has "a silver-spoon effect" on the next generation from the fetus stage.