Advances in mitigating methane emissions from rice cultivation: past, present, and future strategies.

This paper analyzes methane emissions from rice cultivation, a major source of global methane (10-12% of emissions), driven by traditional flooding practices that create anaerobic conditions. Before 2000, continuous flooding was the dominant rice irrigation method, promoting methanogenesis and increasing methane (CH₄) emissions. Since then, practices like alternate wetting and drying (AWD), biochar application, and mid-season drainage, have significantly cut CH₄ emissions by 41.37%, 28.97%, and 23.87%, respectively. Financial mechanisms such as carbon credits, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Sustainable Rice Platform (SRP) certification now incentivize farmers to adopt low-emission techniques. These changes in water management, fertilizers, soil treatment, and policy have collectively improved methane reduction efficiency, supporting global sustainability goals. Precisions agriculture (IoT, drones, and machine learning) enabling optimized water and nutrient management. Policy mechanisms, including carbon credits and SRP certification, further incentivize sustainable practices. However, adoption faces barriers like high costs, limited training, and policy gaps. The paper also identifies future directions, including the development of stress-tolerant rice varieties, optimized microbial inoculants, and large-scale trials of AWD and IoT systems in low-income regions.