Emerging potentials of duckweed (Lemnaceae): From composition to protein uses in food and nutraceuticals - A review.

Duckweed, a rapidly growing aquatic plant, is gaining significant attention as a sustainable protein source. However, fully unlocking its potential requires a comprehensive evaluation, from its nutrient composition to its applications in both food and nutraceutical products. This review provides a holistic approach, beginning with the factors influencing duckweed's nutrient composition, including growth conditions and environmental variables. The challenges of protein extraction from duckweed are reported in comparison to other leafy plants, highlighting current obstacles and innovative methods. The functional properties of duckweed proteins after extraction-including solubility, emulsification, foaming, and gelling-are critically assessed for their relevance in food product development. Duckweed protein digestibility in animal and humans is then thoroughly examined, underscoring duckweed's prospect as a high-quality protein source. Additionally, the bioactivities of duckweed-derived compounds, particularly peptides, are explored for their potential health benefits, including antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticancer and antioxidant properties. This review also addresses consumer acceptance and real-world applications based on existing literature, commercial developments, and patents. Regulatory and safety considerations are reported, highlighting both the successes and challenges encountered in recent regulatory efforts. Overall, while duckweed has significant potential as a sustainable food source, research and commercial interest are still in their early stages. Its future role and identity in the food system, whether as a whole food, functional protein source, or source of bioactive compounds, remains to be defined.