Role of Ceramide Kinase/C1P in the Regulation of Cell Growth and Survival.

Ceramide 1-phosphate (C1P) is a key regulator of cell proliferation and survival in both normal and transformed cells. Major pathways implicated in the mitogenic actions of C1P include activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) ERK1-2 and JNK, as well as stimulation of the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, the product of retinoblastoma, or the sphingomyelin synthase (SMS)/diacylglycerol (DAG)/protein kinase C-alpha (PKC-α) pathway. C1P-stimulated cell proliferation can also be mediated through enhanced secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in macrophages or by releasing lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) in myoblasts. Also, the production of low levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can mediate the stimulation of cell growth by C1P, particularly in macrophages. Upregulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway is also involved in the inhibition of cell death by C1P, which can also contribute to cell survival by blocking the activity of the ceramide-generating enzymes acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) and serine palmitoyl transferase (SPT). Moreover, C1P-promoted cell survival involves upregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the subsequent production of nitric oxide (NO). Using photosensitive C1P analogues, it could be concluded that promotion of cell growth and inhibition of cell death were elicited by intracellularly generated C1P in a receptor-independent manner. The aim of the present review is to evaluate in detail the implication of the CerK/C1P axis in controlling cell proliferation and survival in mammalian cells, as well as to discuss and update on the molecular mechanisms by which C1P can accomplish these actions.