Control, culture and chronic pain.

In the past decade, the literature on chronic pain shows an increasing interest in the relationship between patients' locus of control (LOC) beliefs and their responses to the chronic pain experience [1-5]. However, few of these studies assess the relationships between ethnic or cultural background and LOC style in the chronic pain experience--despite research suggesting that culture affects chronic pain responses [6-8]. This report of two quantitative and qualitative research projects among chronic pain sufferers in New England and in Puerto Rico, shows significant relationships between patients' LOC style and variations in reported chronic pain intensity and responses. Our studies also demonstrate a relationship between LOC style and ethnic or cultural background and an interaction between LOC style and cultural identity in variations in reported pain intensity. In addition, we found intra-ethnic/cultural-group variations in the pain experience related to LOC style. In these chronic pain populations, the qualitative data further suggests that LOC style may not be a permanent, unchanging characteristic or cognitive interpretation. Instead, an individual's LOC style may be altered by the chronic pain experience and such a style may change at various stages in the chronic pain 'career'. These studies also show that in many ethnic/cultural groups, an increased sense of control may contribute to an increased ability to cope successfully with the chronic pain experience. In light of these findings, we suggest that it may be possible to alter a patient's sense of control through the development of deliberate culturally appropriate and personally relevant programs designed to help the patients establish a sense of control over their lives and their pain.