Evolution of dioecy: can nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions select for maleness?

A model of evolution of reproductive systems, when sex is determined by both nuclear and cytoplasmic genes, is presented. Such a control of sex is known to facilitate the occurrence of female individuals in hermaphroditic populations, thus leading to gynodioecy. A two-cytotypes two-nuclear loci (two alleles at each nuclear locus) model for gynodioecy has been developed previously. Such gynodioecious systems are usually considered as stable, i.e. not leading to dioecy. In order to find out if the presence of females can select for male individuals when sex determination is nuclear-cytoplasmic, we followed the evolution of alleles responsible for female sterility. These alleles can be at the preceding loci or at a third locus. We show that male individuals can be selected. Dioecy evolves in less restrictive conditions than under nuclear sex determination. The same also holds for trioecy (coexistence of females, hermaphrodites and males). Nuclear-cytoplasmic polymorphism can be maintained in these reproductive systems.