A longitudinal study of the effects of pessimism, trait anxiety, and life stress on depressive symptoms in middle-aged women.

The relative contributions of life stress, menopausal status, and pessimism and trait anxiety during the presence and absence of stress on increases in depressive symptoms across 3 years were examined in a sample of 460 premenopausal women, aged 42-50, who had few depressive symptoms at study entry. Multivariate analyses showed that after statistical adjustments for initial depressive symptoms and education, depressive symptoms at follow-up were higher among women (a) who reported stressful events, especially of a chronic nature, (b) who scored highly on trait anxiety, and (c) who were pessimistic and subsequently experienced a stressful ongoing problem. Change in menopausal status was not related to symptoms. The study confirms that midlife stress and both optimism and trait anxiety are important predictors of depressive symptoms during midlife.