Anxiety, task-experience, and vocal-style of judges as determinants of performer confidence.

To examine the effect of umpiring vocal-manner on a performance-measure of confidence, 30 baseball players viewed a series of videotaped pitching-catching-umpiring sequences and rated confidence in their ability to hit each pitch. Matched sequences were presented under each of two controlled conditions: for Conventional, the umpire called "strikes" emphatically and "balls" in an indifferent manner; for Modified, this vocal-manner was reversed. A single Conventional (or, Modified) sequence embedded within a series of contrasting sequences and a "bad" pitch (clearly out of the strike-zone) were included as tests of the effectiveness of the experimental manipulation. Results indicated: (1) Modified umpiring enhanced confidence; (2) this effect was most prominent among highly experienced players; (3) low-anxiety players showed higher confidence under both conditions; (4) Modified sequences embedded within a Conventional background elicited significantly greater confidence than in the background sequences.