Mixed and Penalty Finite Element Models for the Nonlinear Behavior of Biphasic Soft Tissues in Finite Deformation: Part II - Nonlinear Examples.

This two-part paper addresses finite element-based computational models for the three-dimensional (3-D) nonlinear analysis of soft hydrated tissues, such as articular cartilage in diarthrodial joints, under physiologically relevant loading conditions. A biphasic continuum description is used to represent the soft tissue as a two-phase mixture of incompressible inviscid fluid and a hyperelastic, transversely isotropic solid. Alternate mixed-penalty and velocity-pressure finite element formulations are used to solve the nonlinear biphasic governing equations, including the effects of strain-dependent permeability and a hyperelastic solid phase under finite deformation. The resulting first-order, nonlinear system of equations is discretized in time using an implicit finite difference scheme, and solved using the Newton-Raphson method. Details of the formulations were presented in Part I [1]. In Part II, the two formulations are used to develop two-dimensional (2-D) quadrilateral and triangular elements and three-dimensional (3-D) hexahedral and tetrahedral elements. Numerical examples, including those representative of soft tissue material testing and simple human joints, are used to validate the formulations and to illustrate their applications. A focus of this work is the comparison of the alternate formulations for nonlinear problems. While it is demonstrated that both formulations produce a range of converging elements, the velocity-pressure formulation is found to be more efficient computationally.