The submarine service of the future?

Space missions, although now routine, are unique in terms of their environment and logistical requirements. The number of missions (man-hours) remains relatively small and planning still relies on comparisons with analogous missions, including submarine operations. Antarctic missions, which tend not to be classified, have provided more information about isolated communities because of the number of personnel per base. Space medicine has traditionally been an extension of aviation medicine with high g-forces involved in the transition from Earth to orbit and astronauts such as Neil Armstrong recruited from the test pilot fraternity. As the length of a mission increases and the space habitation relies more on regenerative systems, the environment becomes more analogous with today's nuclear submarines. As well as the air purification implications, radiation still is a significant hazard with even greater impact on future Mars missions requiring the provision of health physics monitoring, advice and countermeasures well established in the submarine flotilla. Nevertheless, the specialty space medicine will progress as a specialty in its own right, pooling expertise from other specialties such as aviation, radiation, emergency and occupational medicine taking human exploration beyond the confines of land and sea.