Reductive activation with cysteine represents a chromium(III)-dependent pathway in the induction of genotoxicity by carcinogenic chromium(VI).

Induction of DNA damage by carcinogenic hexavalent chromium compounds [Cr(VI)] results from its reduction to lower oxidation states. Reductive metabolism of Cr(VI) generates intermediate Cr(V/IV)species, organic radicals, and finally Cr(III), which forms stable complexes with many biological ligands, including DNA. To determine the biological significance of different reaction products, we examined genotoxic responses and the formation of DNA damage during reduction of Cr(VI) by its biological reducer, cysteine. We have found that cysteine-dependent activation of Cr(VI) led to the formation of Cr-DNA and cysteine-Cr-DNA adducts as well as interstrand DNA cross-links. The yield of binary and ternary DNA adducts was relatively constant at different concentrations of Cr(VI) and averaged approximately 54 and 45%, respectively. Interstrand DNA cross-links accounted on average for 1% of adducts, and their yield was even less significant at low Cr(VI) concentrations. Reduction of Cr(VI) in several commonly used buffers did not induce detectable damage to the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA. Replication of Cr(VI)-modified plasmids in intact human fibroblasts has shown that cysteine-dependent metabolism of Cr(VI) resulted in the formation of mutagenic and replication-blocking DNA lesions. Selective elimination of Cr-DNA adducts from Cr(VI)-treated plasmids abolished all genotoxic responses, indicating that nonoxidative, Cr(III)-dependent reactions were responsible for the induction of both mutagenicity and replication blockage by Cr(VI). The demonstration of the mutagenic potential of Cr-DNA adducts suggests that these lesions can be explored in the development of specific and mechanistically important biomarkers of exposure to toxic forms of Cr.