Effects of surface tethering on protein folding mechanisms.

The folding mechanisms of proteins are increasingly being probed through single-molecule experiments in which the protein is immobilized on a surface. Nevertheless, a clear understanding of how the surface might affect folding, and whether or not it changes folding from its bulk behavior, is lacking. In this work, we use molecular dynamics simulations of a model beta-barrel protein tethered to a surface to systematically investigate how the surface impacts folding. In the bulk, this protein folds in a three-state manner through a compact intermediate state, and its transition state (TS) has a well formed hydrophobic core. Upon tethering, we find that folding rates and stability are impacted differently by the surface, with dependencies on both the length and location of the tether. Significant changes in folding times are observed for tether points that do not alter the folding temperature. Tethering also locally enhances the formation of structure for residues proximal to the tether point. We find that neither the folding mechanism nor the TS of this protein are altered if the tether is in a fully structured or completely unstructured region of the TS. By contrast, tethering in a partially structured region of the TS leads to dramatic changes. For one such tether point, the intermediate present in bulk folding is eliminated, leading to a two-state folding process with a heterogeneous, highly unstructured TS ensemble. These results have implications for both the design of single-molecule experiments and biotechnological applications of tethered proteins.