Timing of anticipatory muscle tensing control: responses before and after expected impact.

It is widely accepted that human motor control is anticipatory in nature. Previous studies have used electromyography (EMG) to examine muscle responses to falling objects and identified anticipatory muscle tensing (AMT) as a spike in activation that occurs prior to object impact. Some studies have suggested that humans use an internal model of gravity to mediate precisely timed AMT responses. The present study further examines predictive motor control through the analysis of AMT during an object catching task. For some trials, participants watched an object falling toward the hand; for other trials, their eyes were closed. For some trials, the object fell downward and impacted the hand; for other randomly selected trials, the object abruptly stopped 12 cm above the hand, enabling an assessment of the effect of impact anticipation independent of the reflexive tactile response associated with an actual impact. In Experiment 1, AMT did not shift for approximately 113 ms after the abrupt stop of the ball. In Experiment 2, we randomly varied the start height of the object and found well-timed AMT with a 129-ms lag time. A control system based on simple memory for fall time duration cannot explain these findings. We argue that an AMT control system with a lag time of approximately 121 ms could not perform with human levels of accuracy without accounting for the acceleration of downward moving objects.