Forgotten achievements of Polish retinal research in international ophthalmology.

The development of ophthalmology was greatly restricted in Poland in the 19th century, because it was partitioned and occupied by its three dominant neighbours. Polish medical universities were closed, and in Polish hospitals, only clinical work was possible. Those who wanted to study medicine and become ophthalmologists were forced to live and work in exile. Nevertheless, there were some Polish ophthalmologists at that time who had some international influence on retinal research. They contributed to colour vision physiology and pathology, ophthalmoscopy, retinal detachment and gyrate chorioretinal atrophy and congenital choroidal coloboma. The most prominent were Wiktor Szokalski, Ksawery Gałęzowski, Bolesław Wicherkiewicz, Kaziemierz Noiszewski and Michał Borysiekiewicz.