Osteochondral interface tissue engineering using macroscopic gradients of bioactive signals.

Continuous gradients exist at osteochondral interfaces, which may be engineered by applying spatially patterned gradients of biological cues. In the present study, a protein-loaded microsphere-based scaffold fabrication strategy was applied to achieve spatially and temporally controlled delivery of bioactive signals in three-dimensional (3D) tissue engineering scaffolds. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 and transforming growth factor-beta(1)-loaded poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres were utilized with a gradient scaffold fabrication technology to produce microsphere-based scaffolds containing opposing gradients of these signals. Constructs were then seeded with human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs) or human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells (hUCMSCs), and osteochondral tissue regeneration was assessed in gradient scaffolds and compared to multiple control groups. Following a 6-week cell culture, the gradient scaffolds produced regionalized extracellular matrix, and outperformed the blank control scaffolds in cell number, glycosaminoglycan production, collagen content, alkaline phosphatase activity, and in some instances, gene expression of major osteogenic and chondrogenic markers. These results suggest that engineered signal gradients may be beneficial for osteochondral tissue engineering.