The University of Hong Kong, Institute of Human Performance, 7 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Conscious Cogn. 2010 Dec;19(4):1058-61. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2008.11.005.
Maxwell et al. [Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., Kerr, E., & Weedon, E. (2001). The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1049-1068. The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1049-1068] suggested that, following unsuccessful movements, the learner forms hypotheses about the probable causes of the error and the required movement adjustments necessary for its elimination. Hypothesis testing is an explicit process that places demands on cognitive resources. Demands on cognitive resources can be identified by measuring probe reaction times (PRT) and movement times. Lengthened PRT and movement times reflects increased cognitive demands. Thus, PRT and movement times should be longer following errors, relative to successful, movements. This hypothesis was tested using a motor skill (golf putting). Furthermore, the association between error processing and the preparation and execution phases of movement was examined. The data confirmed that cognitive demand is greater for trials following an error, relative to trials without an error. This effect was apparent throughout learning and in both the preparatory and execution phases of the movement. Cognitive effort also appeared to be higher during movement preparation, relative to movement execution.
麦克斯韦等人[麦克斯韦，JP，马斯特斯，RSW，克尔，E，和威登，E.（2001）。学习没有错误的隐含好处。实验心理学季刊，54A，1049-1068。学习没有错误的隐含好处。实验心理学季刊，54A，1049-1068]认为，在不成功的运动之后，学习者会对错误的可能原因以及消除错误所需的运动调整形成假设。假设检验是一个需要认知资源的显式过程。可以通过测量探针反应时间（PRT）和运动时间来确定对认知资源的需求。PRT 和运动时间的延长反映了认知需求的增加。因此，与成功运动相比，错误运动后的 PRT 和运动时间应该更长。使用运动技能（高尔夫推杆）检验了这一假设。此外，还检查了错误处理与运动准备和执行阶段之间的关系。数据证实，与没有错误的试验相比，错误后试验的认知需求更大。这种影响在整个学习过程中以及运动的准备和执行阶段都很明显。与运动执行相比，运动准备期间似乎需要更高的认知努力。
