Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons.

Drugs without a strong evidence base and outside of recommendations are too often prescribed for older adults. Established guidelines such as Beers criteria have identified both specific medications and certain drug classes as inappropriate for older adults, primarily due to adverse effects. Age-related physiological changes in distribution, metabolism, and elimination often alter the effects of pharmacotherapies in older adults. When designing a therapeutic program, all elements contributing to the pathophysiology of painful conditions should be considered, as well as the mechanisms of action of analgesic drug classes. Both appropriate and inappropriate medications for older adults are detailed herein, as well as their contraindications and potential drug-drug or drug-disease interactions. The number needed to treat (NNT) can be useful in considering efficacy, while the safety of a pharmacotherapy is indicated by the calculated number needed to harm (NNH). The NNT is a measure describing the number of patients who require treatment for every 1 who reaches the therapeutic goal, and the NNH describes the number of participants who manifest side effects; these can further be segregated into numbers who withdraw from studies due to intolerable side effects. These parameters, along with a patient's comorbidities and concomitant medications, should be considered when selecting an analgesic and dose regimen. In addition, practitioners should avoid prescribing multiple-drug therapies that have overlapping pharmacodynamics or that may have an adverse pharmacokinetic interaction.