Structural and functional alterations of cellular components as revealed by electron microscopy.

Scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are two fundamental microscopic techniques widely applied in biological research for the study of ultrastructural cell components. With these methods, especially TEM, it is possible to detect and quantify the morphological and ultrastructural parameters of intracellular organelles (mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, endosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeleton, nucleus, etc.) in normal and pathological conditions. The study of intracellular vesicle compartmentalization is raising even more interest in the light of the importance of intracellular localization of mediators of the signaling in eliciting different biological responses. The study of the morphology of some intracellular organelles can supply information on the bio-energetic status of the cells. TEM has also a pivotal role in the determination of different types of programmed cell death. In fact, the visualization of autophagosomes and autophagolysosomes is essential to determine the occurrence of autophagy (and also to discriminate micro-autophagy from macro-autophagy), while the presence of fragmented nuclei and surface blebbing is characteristic of apoptosis. SEM is particularly useful for the study of the morphological features of the cells and, therefore, can shed light, for instance, on cell-cell interactions. After a brief introduction on the basic principles of the main electron microscopy methods, the article describes some cell components with the aim to demonstrate the huge role of the ultrastructural analysis played in the knowledge of the relationship between function and structure of the biological objects.