Maternal age and spine development in a rotifer: ecological implications and evolution.

Brachionus calyciflorus typically develops long, defensive spines only in response to a kairomone from the predatory rotifer, Asplanchna. However, in the absence of any environmental induction, females of some clones produce daughters with increasingly long spines as they age; late-born individuals can have posterolateral spines as long as those induced by Asplanchna: up to 50% or more of body length. Here, we construct a model using data from life-table and predator-prey experiments to assess how this maternal-age effect can influence the distribution of spine lengths in reproducing populations and provide defense against Asplanchna predation. When Asplanchna is absent, the frequency of individuals with late birth orders rapidly becomes extremely low; thus, any cost associated with the production of long-spined individuals is minimal. When Asplanchna is present at densities too low for spine induction, and preys selectively on individuals with no or short posterolateral spines, the frequency of long-spined individuals rapidly increases until a stable birth-order structure is reached. As a result, mortality from Asplanchna predation is greatly reduced. The pronounced and novel birth-order effect in this rotifer appears to be an effective bet-hedging strategy to limit predation by Asplanchna when its kairomone induces no or less than maximal spine development.